The “Good Cop, Bad Cop” Effect in the RT-Based Concealed Information Test: Exploring the Effect of Emotional Expressions Displayed by a Virtual Investigator

<div><p>Concealing the possession of relevant information represents a complex cognitive process, shaped by contextual demands and individual differences in cognitive and socio-emotional functioning. The Reaction Time-based Concealed Information Test (RT-CIT) is used to detect concealed knowledge based on the difference in RTs between denying recognition of critical (<i>probes</i>) and newly encountered (<i>irrelevant</i>) information. Several research questions were addressed in this scenario implemented after a mock crime. First, we were interested whether the introduction of a social stimulus (facial identity) simulating a virtual investigator would facilitate the process of deception detection. Next, we explored whether his emotional displays (friendly, hostile or neutral) would have a differential impact on speed of responses to probe versus irrelevant items. We also compared the impact of introducing similar stimuli in a working memory (WM) updating context without requirements to conceal information. Finally, we explored the association between deceptive behavior and individual differences in WM updating proficiency or in internalizing problems (state / trait anxiety and depression). Results indicated that the mere presence of a neutral virtual investigator slowed down participants' responses, but not the appended lie-specific time (difference between probes and irrelevants). Emotional expression was shown to differentially affect speed of responses to critical items, with positive displays from the virtual examiner enhancing lie-specific time, compared to negative facial expressions, which had an opposite impact. This valence-specific effect was not visible in the WM updating context. Higher levels of trait / state anxiety were related to faster responses to probes in the negative condition (hostile facial expression) of the RT-CIT. These preliminary findings further emphasize the need to take into account motivational and emotional factors when considering the transfer of deception detection techniques from the laboratory to real-life settings.</p></div

Illustration of the n-back tasks.

<p><b>A.</b> The target in the 0-back control condition is any letter designated in the instructions (e.g., X). <b>B.</b> the target in the 2-back memory-load condition is any repeat of a letter presented two trials back (e.g., L). <b>C</b>. The EM-<i>n</i>-back task consisted of superimposing the original <i>n</i>-back task onto one of four backgrounds (no background, negative face stimuli, neutral face stimuli, and positive face stimuli.</p

Sample items from the RT-based Concealed Information Test.

<p>Sample items from the RT-based Concealed Information Test.</p

Em-RT-CIT conditions, in which the “virtual investigator” appeared before the presentation of each CIT item.

<p>Em-RT-CIT conditions, in which the “virtual investigator” appeared before the presentation of each CIT item.</p

Adjusted multiple correlations between anxiety, depression and deception measures: RTs to probes and irrelevants.

<p>Note: The adjustment of the <i>p-value</i> was computed with Bonferroni correction. If the adjusted <i>p</i>-value exceeded 1, it was set to 1. State anxiety (StaiState), Trait anxiety (StaiTrait), DASS Depression subscale (DASSDepression).</p><p>Adjusted multiple correlations between anxiety, depression and deception measures: RTs to probes and irrelevants.</p

Estimated marginal means of correct-trial reaction time and of accuracy, for the EM-n-back conditions.

<p>Estimated marginal means of correct-trial reaction time and of accuracy, for the EM-n-back conditions.</p

Descriptive statistics for the mean reaction time and accuracy for the stimuli (probes, irrelevants and targets) according to the four conditions: RT-CIT, Neg RT-CIT, Neu RT-CIT, Pos RT-CIT.

<p>Descriptive statistics for the mean reaction time and accuracy for the stimuli (probes, irrelevants and targets) according to the four conditions: RT-CIT, Neg RT-CIT, Neu RT-CIT, Pos RT-CIT.</p

Lie-specific Mean Reaction Time for RT-CIT, Neg RT-CIT, Neu RT-CIT, Pos RT-CIT.

<p>Asterisks indicate significant post-hoc differences. Error bars indicate standard error of the mean (±2 SEM).</p

Estimated fit lines and their 95% confidence interval for the relation between RTs to probes and individual differences in state anxiety, trait anxiety.

<p>Estimated fit lines and their 95% confidence interval for the relation between RTs to probes and individual differences in state anxiety, trait anxiety.</p